Materials data

A page to find, compare and export materials property values with their sources and conditions. The values are collected from the checked data sets used by the calculators on this site, and every value tells you which source it comes from and which calculator uses it. Search by name (English, Japanese, other names or symbols), filter by class and property, switch units and sort the table.

Values for the same material change with grade, heat treatment, temperature and direction. Check the condition (marked cells) and the source before using a value. For designing parts, use the guaranteed values of standards or the manufacturer’s data.

Property table

Superscript numbers are source numbers (see the source list below); small text gives the grade, state, kind of strength and condition. “+n” is the number of other values for the same property: click the material name to see all of them on its card. Ranges show “low–high” and the representative value. Click a column heading to sort.

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LithiumLi · Pure metals (elements)	0.534³room temperature	4.9⁸room temperature				180.5⁶1 atm
BerylliumBe · Pure metals (elements)	1.85³room temperature	287⁸room temperature				1287⁶1 atm
SodiumNa · Pure metals (elements)	0.97³room temperature	10⁸room temperature				97.794⁶1 atm
MagnesiumMg · Pure metals (elements)	1.74³room temperature	45⁸room temperature		156¹⁵300 K	24.8¹³25 °C	650⁶1 atm
AluminumAl · Pure metals (elements)	2.7³room temperature	70⁸room temperature		237¹⁵300 K	23.1¹³25 °C	660.32⁶1 atm
PotassiumK · Pure metals (elements)	0.856⁴room temperature					63.5⁶1 atm
CalciumCa · Pure metals (elements)	1.54³room temperature	20⁸room temperature				842⁶1 atm
ScandiumSc · Pure metals (elements)	2.99³room temperature	74.4⁹room temperature				1541⁶1 atm
TitaniumTi · Pure metals (elements)	4.506³room temperature	116⁸room temperature		21.9¹⁵300 K	8.6¹³25 °C	1668⁶1 atm
VanadiumV · Pure metals (elements)	6.11⁴room temperature	128⁸room temperature				1910⁶1 atm
ChromiumCr · Pure metals (elements)	7.15³room temperature	279⁸room temperature		93.9¹⁵300 K	4.9¹³25 °C	1907⁶1 atm
ManganeseMn · Pure metals (elements)	7.47⁴room temperature	198⁸room temperature				1246⁶1 atm
IronFe · Pure metals (elements)	7.87³room temperature	211⁸room temperature		80.4¹⁵300 K	11.8¹³25 °C	1538⁶1 atm
CobaltCo · Pure metals (elements)	8.86³room temperature	209⁸room temperature				1495⁶1 atm
NickelNi · Pure metals (elements)	8.9³room temperature	200⁸room temperature		90.9¹⁵300 K	13.4¹³25 °C	1455⁶1 atm
CopperCu · Pure metals (elements)	8.96³room temperature	130⁸room temperature		401¹⁵300 K	16.5¹³25 °C	1084.62⁶1 atm
ZincZn · Pure metals (elements)	7.14³room temperature	108⁸room temperature		116¹⁵300 K	30.2¹³25 °C	419.53⁶1 atm
GalliumGa · Pure metals (elements)	5.91³room temperature					29.76⁷1 atm
RubidiumRb · Pure metals (elements)	1.53³room temperature	2.4⁸room temperature				39.3⁶1 atm
StrontiumSr · Pure metals (elements)	2.64³room temperature					777⁶1 atm
YttriumY · Pure metals (elements)	4.47³room temperature	63.5⁹room temperature				1522⁶1 atm
ZirconiumZr · Pure metals (elements)	6.52³room temperature					1855⁶1 atm
NiobiumNb · Pure metals (elements)	8.57³room temperature	105⁸room temperature				2477⁶1 atm
MolybdenumMo · Pure metals (elements)	10.2³room temperature	329⁸room temperature		138¹⁵300 K	4.8¹³25 °C	2623⁶1 atm
TechnetiumTc · Pure metals (elements)	11.5⁴room temperature					2157⁶1 atm
RutheniumRu · Pure metals (elements)	12.37⁴room temperature	447⁸room temperature				2334⁶1 atm
RhodiumRh · Pure metals (elements)	12.4³room temperature					1964⁶1 atm
PalladiumPd · Pure metals (elements)	12³room temperature	121⁸room temperature				1554.9⁶1 atm
SilverAg · Pure metals (elements)	10.5³room temperature	83⁸room temperature		429¹⁵300 K	18.9¹³25 °C	961.78⁶1 atm
CadmiumCd · Pure metals (elements)	8.69³room temperature	50⁸room temperature				321.07⁶1 atm
IndiumIn · Pure metals (elements)	7.31³room temperature	11⁸room temperature				156.6⁶1 atm
TinSn · Pure metals (elements)	7.265³room temperature	50⁸room temperature		66.8¹⁵300 K	22¹³25 °C	231.93⁶1 atm
CesiumCs · Pure metals (elements)	1.93³room temperature	1.7⁸room temperature				28.5⁶1 atm
BariumBa · Pure metals (elements)	3.62³room temperature	13⁸room temperature				727⁶1 atm
LanthanumLa · Pure metals (elements)	6.15³room temperature	36.6⁹room temperature				918⁶1 atm
CeriumCe · Pure metals (elements)	6.689⁴room temperature	33.6⁹room temperature				798⁶1 atm
PraseodymiumPr · Pure metals (elements)	6.77³room temperature	37.3⁹room temperature				931⁶1 atm
NeodymiumNd · Pure metals (elements)	7.01³room temperature	41.4⁹room temperature				1021⁶1 atm
PromethiumPm · Pure metals (elements)	7.26³room temperature					1042⁶1 atm
SamariumSm · Pure metals (elements)	7.52³room temperature	49.7⁹room temperature				1074⁶1 atm
EuropiumEu · Pure metals (elements)	5.24³room temperature	18.2⁹room temperature				822⁶1 atm
GadoliniumGd · Pure metals (elements)	7.9³room temperature	54.8⁹room temperature				1313⁶1 atm
TerbiumTb · Pure metals (elements)	8.23³room temperature	55.7⁹room temperature				1356⁶1 atm
DysprosiumDy · Pure metals (elements)	8.55³room temperature	61.4⁹room temperature				1412⁶1 atm
HolmiumHo · Pure metals (elements)	8.8³room temperature	64.8⁹room temperature				1474⁶1 atm
ErbiumEr · Pure metals (elements)	9.07³room temperature	69.9⁹room temperature				1529⁶1 atm
ThuliumTm · Pure metals (elements)	9.32³room temperature	74⁹room temperature				1545⁶1 atm
YtterbiumYb · Pure metals (elements)	6.9³room temperature	23.9⁹room temperature				819⁶1 atm
LutetiumLu · Pure metals (elements)	9.84³room temperature	68.6⁹room temperature				1663⁶1 atm
HafniumHf · Pure metals (elements)	13.3³room temperature					2233⁶1 atm
TantalumTa · Pure metals (elements)	16.65⁴room temperature	186⁸room temperature		57.5¹⁵300 K	6.3¹³25 °C	3017⁶1 atm
TungstenW · Pure metals (elements)	19.3³room temperature	411⁸room temperature		173¹⁵300 K	4.5¹³25 °C	3422⁶1 atm
RheniumRe · Pure metals (elements)	20.8³room temperature	463⁸room temperature				3186⁶1 atm
OsmiumOs · Pure metals (elements)	22.59³room temperature					3033⁶1 atm
IridiumIr · Pure metals (elements)	22.5³room temperature	528⁸room temperature				2446⁶1 atm
PlatinumPt · Pure metals (elements)	21.5³room temperature	168⁸room temperature		71.6¹⁵300 K	8.8¹³25 °C	1768.4⁶1 atm
GoldAu · Pure metals (elements)	19.3³room temperature	78⁸room temperature		318¹⁵300 K	14.2¹³25 °C	1064.18⁶1 atm
MercuryHg · Pure metals (elements)	13.5336³liquid at 25 °C					−38.83⁶1 atm
ThalliumTl · Pure metals (elements)	11.8³room temperature	8⁸room temperature				304⁶1 atm
LeadPb · Pure metals (elements)	11.3³room temperature	16⁸room temperature		35.3¹⁵300 K	28.9¹³25 °C	327.46⁶1 atm
BismuthBi · Pure metals (elements)	9.79³room temperature	32⁸room temperature				271.4⁶1 atm
PoloniumPo · Pure metals (elements)	9.2³room temperature					254⁶1 atm
Low carbon steelAlloys	7.8–7.9rep. 7.85²⁸Ashby’s range for the class	200–220rep. 210²⁸Ashby’s range for the class	250–400rep. 316²⁸Ashby’s range for the class · Ashby strength σf	49–54rep. 51.4²⁸Ashby’s range for the class	12–13rep. 12.5²⁸Ashby’s range for the class
Low alloy steelAlloys	7.8–7.9rep. 7.85²⁸Ashby’s range for the class	210–220rep. 215²⁸Ashby’s range for the class	400–1500rep. 775²⁸Ashby’s range for the class · Ashby strength σf	34–55rep. 43.2²⁸Ashby’s range for the class	11–14rep. 12.4²⁸Ashby’s range for the class
Stainless steelAlloys	7.6–8.1rep. 7.85²⁸Ashby’s range for the class	190–210rep. 200²⁸Ashby’s range for the class	170–1170rep. 446²⁸³⁴Ashby’s range for the class · Ashby strength σf	12–24rep. 17²⁸Ashby’s range for the class	13–20rep. 16.1²⁸Ashby’s range for the class
Gray cast ironAlloys	7.1–7.3rep. 7.2²⁸Ashby’s range for the class	80–140rep. 106²⁸Ashby’s range for the class	140–420rep. 242²⁸Ashby’s range for the class · Ashby strength σf	40–72rep. 53.7²⁸Ashby’s range for the class	11–13rep. 12²⁸Ashby’s range for the class
Aluminum alloysAlloys	2.5–2.9rep. 2.69²⁸Ashby’s range for the class	68–82rep. 74.7²⁸Ashby’s range for the class	30–500rep. 122²⁸Ashby’s range for the class · Ashby strength σf	76–240rep. 135²⁸Ashby’s range for the class	21–24rep. 22.4²⁸Ashby’s range for the class
Copper alloysAlloys	8.9rep. 8.9²⁸Ashby’s range for the class	110–150rep. 128²⁸Ashby’s range for the class	30–500rep. 122²⁸Ashby’s range for the class · Ashby strength σf	160–390rep. 250²⁸Ashby’s range for the class	17–18rep. 17.5²⁸Ashby’s range for the class
Magnesium alloysAlloys	1.7–2rep. 1.84²⁸Ashby’s range for the class	42–47rep. 44.4²⁸Ashby’s range for the class	70–400rep. 167²⁸Ashby’s range for the class · Ashby strength σf	50–160rep. 89.4²⁸Ashby’s range for the class	25–28rep. 26.5²⁸Ashby’s range for the class
Titanium alloysAlloys	4.4–4.8rep. 4.6²⁸Ashby’s range for the class	90–120rep. 104²⁸Ashby’s range for the class	250–1200rep. 548²⁸Ashby’s range for the class · Ashby strength σf	6.7–14rep. 9.69²⁸³⁵Ashby’s range for the class	7.9–11rep. 9.32²⁸Ashby’s range for the class
Nickel alloysAlloys	8.8–9rep. 8.9²⁸Ashby’s range for the class	190–220rep. 204²⁸Ashby’s range for the class	70–1100rep. 277²⁸Ashby’s range for the class · Ashby strength σf	11–91rep. 31.6²⁸³⁶Ashby’s range for the class	12–14rep. 13²⁸Ashby’s range for the class
Lead alloysAlloys	10–11rep. 10.5²⁸Ashby’s range for the class	13–15rep. 14²⁸Ashby’s range for the class	8–14rep. 10.6²⁸Ashby’s range for the class · Ashby strength σf	22–36rep. 28.1²⁸Ashby’s range for the class	18–32rep. 24²⁸Ashby’s range for the class
Tungsten alloysAlloys	10.8–20rep. 14.7²⁸Ashby’s range for the class	310–380rep. 343²⁸Ashby’s range for the class	530–800rep. 651²⁸Ashby’s range for the class · Ashby strength σf	100–140rep. 118²⁸Ashby’s range for the class	4–5.6rep. 4.73²⁸Ashby’s range for the class
Structural steel (S235, S355)Alloys	7.85¹⁶⁶¹geometric mean of Ashby’s range	210¹⁷⁶¹room temperature	235¹⁷+1S235 · yield strength	53.3¹⁷at 20 °C	12¹⁷mean over 20–100 °C
Invar (Fe-36Ni)Alloys	8.05¹⁹room temperature	141¹⁹room temperature	241¹⁸yield strength	10.5¹⁹room temperature	1.44¹⁸mean over 21–100 °C
Kovar (Fe-29Ni-17Co)Alloys	8.36²⁰room temperature	138²⁰room temperature	345²⁰yield strength	17.3²⁰room temperature	5.86²⁰mean over 25–100 °C
Aluminum alloy 6061-T6Alloys	2.7⁵⁸	68.9⁵⁸	276⁵⁸yield strength		23.6⁵⁸
Pb–Sn eutectic solderAlloys						183⁷¹eutectic temperature
Al–Si eutectic alloyAlloys						577⁷²eutectic temperature
Ag–Cu eutectic alloy (silver brazing alloy)Alloys						779⁷¹eutectic temperature
Al–Cu eutectic (Al-rich side)Alloys						548.2⁷³eutectic temperature
Stainless steel 304 (SUS304)Alloys	8.03⁷⁹	193⁷⁹	241⁷⁹+1yield strength · annealed · at 21 °C	16.2⁷⁹+1at 100 °C	16.9⁷⁹+2mean over 0–100 °C	1399–1454⁷⁹melting range (solidus–liquidus)
Stainless steel 316 (SUS316)Alloys	8.03⁸⁰	193⁸⁰	290⁸⁰+1yield strength · room temperature	16.2⁸⁰+1at 100 °C	16⁸⁰+3mean over 0–100 °C	1371–1399⁸⁰melting range (solidus–liquidus)
AluminaCeramics	3.8²¹+1Kyocera AO479O · room temperature	360²¹+1Kyocera AO479O · room temperature	310²¹+1Kyocera AO479O · flexural strength	29²¹+1Kyocera AO479O · room temperature	7.2²¹+1Kyocera AO479O · mean over 40–400 °C
Aluminum nitrideCeramics	3.3rep. 3.3²⁸Ashby’s range for the class	320²¹+1Kyocera AN216A · room temperature	310²¹+1Kyocera AN216A · flexural strength	150²¹+1Kyocera AN216A · room temperature	4.6²¹+1Kyocera AN216A · mean over 40–400 °C
Silicon carbideCeramics	3.16²¹+1Kyocera SC1000 · room temperature	440²¹+1Kyocera SC1000 · room temperature	450²¹+1Kyocera SC1000 · flexural strength	200²¹+1Kyocera SC1000 · room temperature	3.7²¹+1Kyocera SC1000 · mean over 40–400 °C
Tungsten carbideCeramics	10.5–10.6rep. 10.5²⁸Ashby’s range for the class	630–700rep. 664²⁸Ashby’s range for the class	340–550rep. 432²⁸Ashby’s range for the class · Ashby strength σf	55–88rep. 69.6²⁸Ashby’s range for the class	5.2–7.1rep. 6.08²⁸Ashby’s range for the class
BrickCeramics	1.6–2.1rep. 1.83²⁸Ashby’s range for the class	15–30rep. 21.2²⁸Ashby’s range for the class	5–14rep. 8.37²⁸Ashby’s range for the class · Ashby strength σf	0.46–0.73rep. 0.579²⁸Ashby’s range for the class	5–8rep. 6.32²⁸Ashby’s range for the class
ConcreteCeramics	2.3–2.6rep. 2.45²⁸Ashby’s range for the class	15–25rep. 19.4²⁸Ashby’s range for the class	1–3rep. 1.73²⁸Ashby’s range for the class · Ashby strength σf	0.8–2.4rep. 1.39²⁸Ashby’s range for the class	6–13rep. 8.83²⁸Ashby’s range for the class
StoneCeramics	2–2.6rep. 2.28²⁸Ashby’s range for the class	20–60rep. 34.6²⁸Ashby’s range for the class	2–25rep. 7.07²⁸Ashby’s range for the class · Ashby strength σf	1.3–6rep. 2.79²⁸³⁷Ashby’s range for the class	3.7–6.3rep. 4.83²⁸Ashby’s range for the class
Silicon nitride Si₃N₄Ceramics	3.3²¹Kyocera SN240 · room temperature	300²¹Kyocera SN240 · room temperature	1020²¹Kyocera SN240 · flexural strength	27²¹Kyocera SN240 · room temperature	2.8²¹Kyocera SN240 · mean over 40–400 °C
Zirconia ZrO₂ (partially stabilized)Ceramics	6²¹Kyocera ZO201N · room temperature	200²¹Kyocera ZO201N · room temperature	1000²¹Kyocera ZO201N · flexural strength	3²¹Kyocera ZO201N · room temperature	10.5²¹Kyocera ZO201N · mean over 40–400 °C
CordieriteCeramics	2.5²¹Kyocera CO220O · room temperature	140²¹Kyocera CO220O · room temperature	190²¹Kyocera CO220O · flexural strength	4²¹Kyocera CO220O · room temperature	1.5²¹Kyocera CO220O · mean over 40–400 °C
Sodium chloride (halite)NaCl · Ceramics
Potassium chloride (sylvite)KCl · Ceramics
Lithium fluorideLiF · Ceramics
Magnesium oxide (magnesia)MgO · Ceramics
Calcium fluoride (fluorite)CaF₂ · Ceramics
Soda-lime glassGlasses	2.5²²+1ISO 16293-1 (flat glass for building) · room temperature	70²²+1ISO 16293-1 (flat glass for building) · room temperature	30–35rep. 32.4²⁸Ashby’s range for the class · Ashby strength σf	1²²+1ISO 16293-1 (flat glass for building) · room temperature	9²²+1ISO 16293-1 (flat glass for building) · mean over 20–300 °C
Borosilicate glassGlasses	2.23²³+1SCHOTT BOROFLOAT 33 · room temperature	64²³+1SCHOTT BOROFLOAT 33 · room temperature	25²³+1SCHOTT BOROFLOAT 33 · flexural strength	1.2²³+1SCHOTT BOROFLOAT 33 · room temperature	3.25²³+1SCHOTT BOROFLOAT 33 · mean over 20–300 °C
Silica glassGlasses	2.201²⁴+1Corning HPFS 7980 · room temperature	72.7²⁴+1Corning HPFS 7980 · room temperature	52.4²⁴+1Corning HPFS 7980 · flexural strength	1.3²⁴+1Corning HPFS 7980 · room temperature	0.52²⁴+1Corning HPFS 7980 · mean over 5–35 °C
Polyethylene (PE)Polymers	0.94–0.96rep. 0.95²⁸Ashby’s range for the class	0.62–0.9rep. 0.747²⁸Ashby’s range for the class	18–29rep. 22.8²⁸Ashby’s range for the class · Ashby strength σf	0.4–0.44rep. 0.42²⁸Ashby’s range for the class	130–200rep. 161²⁸Ashby’s range for the class
Polypropylene (PP)Polymers	0.9⁵⁷+1Moplen HP500N	1.55⁵⁷+1Moplen HP500N	35⁵⁷+1Moplen HP500N · yield strength	0.11–0.17rep. 0.137²⁸Ashby’s range for the class	120–180rep. 147²⁸Ashby’s range for the class
Polystyrene (PS)Polymers	1–1.1rep. 1.05²⁸Ashby’s range for the class	1.2–2.6rep. 1.77²⁸Ashby’s range for the class	29–56rep. 40.3²⁸Ashby’s range for the class · Ashby strength σf	0.12–0.13rep. 0.125²⁸Ashby’s range for the class	90–150rep. 116²⁸Ashby’s range for the class
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)Polymers	1.3–1.6rep. 1.44²⁸Ashby’s range for the class	2.1–4.1rep. 2.93²⁸Ashby’s range for the class	35–52rep. 42.7²⁸Ashby’s range for the class · Ashby strength σf	0.15–0.29rep. 0.209²⁸Ashby’s range for the class	100–150rep. 122²⁸Ashby’s range for the class
Acrylic (PMMA)Polymers	1.2rep. 1.2²⁸Ashby’s range for the class	2.2–3.8rep. 2.89²⁸Ashby’s range for the class	54–72rep. 62.4²⁸Ashby’s range for the class · Ashby strength σf	0.084–0.25rep. 0.145²⁸Ashby’s range for the class	72–160rep. 107²⁸Ashby’s range for the class
Polyamide (nylon, PA)Polymers	1.13⁵⁶+2PA6 Ultramid B3S (dry)	3.5⁵⁶+2PA6 Ultramid B3S (dry)	90⁵⁶+2PA6 Ultramid B3S (dry) · yield strength	0.23–0.25rep. 0.24²⁸Ashby’s range for the class	85⁵⁶+2PA6 Ultramid B3S (dry) · middle of the source’s 70–100
Polycarbonate (PC)Polymers	1.1–1.2rep. 1.15²⁸Ashby’s range for the class	2–2.4rep. 2.19²⁸Ashby’s range for the class	59–70rep. 64.3²⁸Ashby’s range for the class · Ashby strength σf	0.19–0.22rep. 0.204²⁸Ashby’s range for the class	120–140rep. 130²⁸Ashby’s range for the class
Polyether ether ketone (PEEK)Polymers	1.3⁵⁵+1Victrex 450G	4⁵⁵+1Victrex 450G	98⁵⁵+1Victrex 450G · yield strength	0.24–0.26rep. 0.25²⁸Ashby’s range for the class	45⁵⁵+1Victrex 450G
Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE)Polymers	2.1–2.2rep. 2.15²⁸Ashby’s range for the class	0.4–0.55rep. 0.469²⁸Ashby’s range for the class	15–25rep. 19.4²⁸Ashby’s range for the class · Ashby strength σf	0.24–0.26rep. 0.25²⁸Ashby’s range for the class	130–220rep. 169²⁸Ashby’s range for the class
EpoxyPolymers	1.3⁵²+1Hexcel 8552 (aerospace)	4.67⁵²+1Hexcel 8552 (aerospace)	121⁵²+1Hexcel 8552 (aerospace) · tensile strength	0.18–0.5rep. 0.3²⁸Ashby’s range for the class	58–120rep. 83.4²⁸⁵³Ashby’s range for the class
Vinyl ester (Derakane 411-350)Polymers	1.14⁵⁴Derakane Momentum 411-350	3.2⁵⁴Derakane Momentum 411-350	86⁵⁴Derakane Momentum 411-350 · tensile strength
Butyl rubberElastomers	0.9–0.92rep. 0.91²⁸Ashby’s range for the class	0.001–0.002rep. 0.00141²⁸Ashby’s range for the class	2–3rep. 2.45²⁸Ashby’s range for the class · Ashby strength σf	0.08–0.1rep. 0.0894²⁸Ashby’s range for the class	120–300rep. 190²⁸Ashby’s range for the class
Natural rubberElastomers	0.92–0.93rep. 0.925²⁸Ashby’s range for the class	0.0015–0.0025rep. 0.00194²⁸Ashby’s range for the class	20–30rep. 24.5²⁸Ashby’s range for the class · Ashby strength σf	0.1–0.14rep. 0.118²⁸Ashby’s range for the class	150–450rep. 260²⁸Ashby’s range for the class
Polychloroprene (neoprene)Elastomers	1.2–1.3rep. 1.25²⁸Ashby’s range for the class	7 × 10⁻⁴–0.002rep. 0.00118²⁸Ashby’s range for the class	3.4–24rep. 9.03²⁸Ashby’s range for the class · Ashby strength σf	0.1–0.2rep. 0.141²⁸³⁸Ashby’s range for the class	185–250rep. 215³⁸Ashby’s range for the class
Silicone rubberElastomers	1.3–1.8rep. 1.53²⁸Ashby’s range for the class	0.005–0.022rep. 0.0105²⁸Ashby’s range for the class	2.4–5.5rep. 3.63²⁸Ashby’s range for the class · Ashby strength σf	0.3–1rep. 0.548²⁸Ashby’s range for the class	250–300rep. 274²⁸Ashby’s range for the class
Carbon T300 (Toray, standard modulus)Fibers for composites	1.76³⁹	230³⁹+1along the fiber axis	3530³⁹tensile strength · along the fiber axis		−0.41³⁹+1along the fiber axis
Carbon T700S (Toray, high strength)Fibers for composites	1.8⁴⁰	230⁴⁰along the fiber axis	4900⁴⁰tensile strength · along the fiber axis		−0.38⁴⁰along the fiber axis
Carbon T800S (Toray, intermediate modulus)Fibers for composites	1.8⁴¹	294⁴¹along the fiber axis	5880⁴¹tensile strength · along the fiber axis		−0.4⁴¹along the fiber axis
Carbon M40J (Toray, high modulus)Fibers for composites	1.77⁴²	377⁴²along the fiber axis	4400⁴²tensile strength · along the fiber axis		−0.83⁴²along the fiber axis
Carbon M55J (Toray, high modulus)Fibers for composites	1.91⁴³	540⁴³along the fiber axis	4020⁴³tensile strength · along the fiber axis		−1.1⁴³along the fiber axis
Carbon HTS40 (Teijin Tenax)Fibers for composites	1.77⁴⁴	240⁴⁴along the fiber axis	4300⁴⁴tensile strength · along the fiber axis
E-glass (AGY)Fibers for composites	2.58⁴⁶	72.3⁴⁶along the fiber axis	3445⁴⁶tensile strength · along the fiber axis		5.4⁴⁶along the fiber axis
E-CR glass Advantex (Owens Corning)Fibers for composites	2.63⁴⁷	82⁴⁷along the fiber axis	4050⁴⁷tensile strength · along the fiber axis
S-2 glass (AGY)Fibers for composites	2.46⁴⁶	86.9⁴⁶along the fiber axis	4890⁴⁶tensile strength · along the fiber axis		1.6⁴⁶along the fiber axis
Aramid Kevlar 49 (DuPont)Fibers for composites	1.44⁴⁸	124⁴⁸+1along the fiber axis	3600⁴⁸tensile strength · along the fiber axis		−4.9⁴⁸+1along the fiber axis
Basalt fibre (Mafic)Fibers for composites	2.63⁵⁰	88⁵⁰along the fiber axis	3000⁵⁰tensile strength · along the fiber axis
Flax fibreFibers for composites	1.53⁵¹	58⁵¹along the fiber axis	1339⁵¹tensile strength · along the fiber axis
Hemp fibreFibers for composites	1.52⁵¹	70⁵¹along the fiber axis	920⁵¹tensile strength · along the fiber axis
CFRP (epoxy matrix, quasi-isotropic)Composites	1.5–1.6rep. 1.55²⁸Ashby’s range for the class	69–150rep. 102²⁸Ashby’s range for the class	550–1100rep. 778²⁸Ashby’s range for the class · Ashby strength σf	1.3–2.6rep. 1.84²⁸Ashby’s range for the class	1–4rep. 2²⁸Ashby’s range for the class
GFRP (epoxy matrix, quasi-isotropic)Composites	1.8–2rep. 1.9²⁸Ashby’s range for the class	15–28rep. 20.5²⁸Ashby’s range for the class	110–190rep. 145²⁸Ashby’s range for the class · Ashby strength σf	0.4–0.55rep. 0.469²⁸Ashby’s range for the class	8.6–33rep. 16.8²⁸Ashby’s range for the class
FR-4 type circuit board (in-plane)Composites		25.8²⁶Isola 370HR · room temperature · in-plane (XY)	621²⁶Isola 370HR · flexural strength · in-plane (XY)	0.4²⁶Isola 370HR · room temperature	13²⁶Isola 370HR · mean over 25–180 °C · in-plane (XY)
T300/5208 carbon/epoxy (Tsai–Hahn)Composites		181⁵⁹+1fiber direction (1)	1500⁵⁹+4tensile strength · fiber direction (1)		0.02⁵⁹+1fiber direction (1)
Carbon/epoxy, standard modulus (NTNU table, Vf 55 %)Composites	1.6⁶⁰	130⁶⁰+1fiber direction (1)	1800⁶⁰+4tensile strength · fiber direction (1)		−0.5⁶⁰+1fiber direction (1)
Carbon/epoxy, high modulus (NTNU table)Composites	1.7⁶⁰	330⁶⁰+1fiber direction (1)	1000⁶⁰+4tensile strength · fiber direction (1)		−0.7⁶⁰+1fiber direction (1)
E-glass/epoxy (NTNU table)Composites	2⁶⁰	40⁶⁰+1fiber direction (1)	1000⁶⁰+4tensile strength · fiber direction (1)		7⁶⁰+1fiber direction (1)
S-glass/epoxy (NTNU table)Composites	2⁶⁰	48⁶⁰+1fiber direction (1)	1300⁶⁰+4tensile strength · fiber direction (1)		4⁶⁰+1fiber direction (1)
Kevlar 49/epoxy (NTNU table)Composites	1.4⁶⁰	73⁶⁰+1fiber direction (1)	1400⁶⁰+4tensile strength · fiber direction (1)		−1⁶⁰+1fiber direction (1)
SiliconSi · Semiconductors	2.329³room temperature	160²⁷+3polycrystal, isotropic average · room temperature		149¹⁵300 K	2.6¹³25 °C	1414⁶1 atm
GermaniumGe · Semiconductors	5.3234³room temperature					938.25⁶1 atm
Zinc sulfide (zinc blende)ZnS · Semiconductors
Gallium arsenideGaAs · Semiconductors
Aluminum arsenideAlAs · Semiconductors
Indium arsenideInAs · Semiconductors
Indium phosphideInP · Semiconductors
Gallium phosphideGaP · Semiconductors
Zinc sulfide (wurtzite)ZnS · Semiconductors
Zinc oxideZnO · Semiconductors
BoronB · Nonmetals and metalloids	2.34³room temperature					2075⁶1 atm
CarbonC · Nonmetals and metalloids	2.267⁵room temperature					— (sublimes without melting at 1 atm)⁶
PhosphorusP · Nonmetals and metalloids	1.823³room temperature					44.15⁶1 atm
SulfurS · Nonmetals and metalloids	2.07³room temperature					115.21⁷1 atm
ArsenicAs · Nonmetals and metalloids	5.75³room temperature	8⁸room temperature				— (sublimes at 615 °C at 1 atm; 817 °C is the triple point at 3.70 MPa)⁶
SeleniumSe · Nonmetals and metalloids	4.81³room temperature	10⁸room temperature				220.5⁶1 atm
BromineBr · Nonmetals and metalloids	3.1028³liquid at 25 °C					−7.2⁶1 atm
AntimonySb · Nonmetals and metalloids	6.68³room temperature	55⁸room temperature				630.63⁶1 atm
TelluriumTe · Nonmetals and metalloids	6.24³room temperature	43⁸room temperature				449.51⁶1 atm
IodineI · Nonmetals and metalloids	4.933³room temperature					113.7⁶1 atm
DiamondC · Nonmetals and metalloids
Flexible polymer foam (low density)Foams	0.038–0.07rep. 0.0516²⁸Ashby’s range for the class	0.001–0.003rep. 0.00173²⁸Ashby’s range for the class	0.02–0.3rep. 0.0775²⁸Ashby’s range for the class · Ashby strength σf
Rigid polymer foam (low density)Foams	0.036–0.07rep. 0.0502²⁸Ashby’s range for the class	0.023–0.08rep. 0.0429²⁸Ashby’s range for the class	0.3–1.7rep. 0.714²⁸Ashby’s range for the class · Ashby strength σf
Rigid polymer foam (high density)Foams	0.17–0.47rep. 0.283²⁸Ashby’s range for the class	0.2–0.48rep. 0.31²⁸Ashby’s range for the class	0.8–12rep. 3.1²⁸Ashby’s range for the class · Ashby strength σf
CorkNatural materials	0.12–0.24rep. 0.17²⁸Ashby’s range for the class	0.013–0.05rep. 0.0255²⁸Ashby’s range for the class	0.3–1.5rep. 0.671²⁸Ashby’s range for the class · Ashby strength σf	0.035–0.048rep. 0.041²⁸Ashby’s range for the class	130–230rep. 173²⁸Ashby’s range for the class
Paper and cardboardNatural materials	0.48–0.86rep. 0.642²⁸Ashby’s range for the class	3–8.9rep. 5.17²⁸Ashby’s range for the class	15–34rep. 22.6²⁸Ashby’s range for the class · Ashby strength σf	0.06–0.17rep. 0.101²⁸Ashby’s range for the class	5–20rep. 10²⁸Ashby’s range for the class
Wood (along the grain)Natural materials	0.6–0.8rep. 0.693²⁸Ashby’s range for the class	6–20rep. 11²⁸Ashby’s range for the class	30–70rep. 45.8²⁸Ashby’s range for the class · Ashby strength σf	0.31–0.38rep. 0.343²⁸Ashby’s range for the class	2–11rep. 4.69²⁸Ashby’s range for the class
Wood (across the grain)Natural materials	0.6–0.8rep. 0.693²⁸Ashby’s range for the class	0.5–3rep. 1.22²⁸Ashby’s range for the class	2–6rep. 3.46²⁸Ashby’s range for the class · Ashby strength σf	0.15–0.19rep. 0.169²⁸Ashby’s range for the class	32–43rep. 37.1²⁸Ashby’s range for the class

Representative values and ranges

There are two kinds of values: a single value for a grade or a standard (for example, Young’s modulus of Kyocera AO479O, 360 GPa) and a range for a class of materials (for example, 340–390 GPa for Ashby’s “alumina”). A range covers many grades with different compositions and processing; it does not mean every grade lies inside it.

The representative value of a range is the geometric mean of its ends, √(low × high), to 3 significant figures. It is the center of the ellipse in the materials selection chart, and for properties spanning an order of magnitude or more (foam strength, polymer thermal conductivity) it describes the position in the range better than the arithmetic mean.

When a material has several values for one property, the table shows the first (the grade’s value if there is one, otherwise the range) and marks the number of other values as “+n”. The card shows every value with its condition and source.

Values change with temperature, microstructure and direction

The thermal expansion coefficient depends on the temperature range. For 304 stainless steel the mean over 0–100 °C is 16.9 × 10⁻⁶ K⁻¹ and over 0–649 °C it is 18.7 × 10⁻⁶ K⁻¹. Thermal conductivity, Young’s modulus and strength also change with temperature; the modulus of most metals falls as the temperature rises. Compare values at the same temperature.

Strength depends more on microstructure (heat treatment, working) than on composition. Yield, tensile and flexural strength are different quantities, and the flexural strength of ceramics comes out higher than the tensile strength. The table always states which strength it shows. Polymers also change with moisture: PA6 has a modulus of 3.5 GPa dry and 1.2 GPa conditioned.

Single crystals, fibers and unidirectional plies differ with direction. Young’s modulus of silicon is 130–188 GPa depending on the crystal direction, and T300 carbon fiber expands negatively along its axis and positively across it. Values for polycrystals are averages over directions.

Specified, typical and measured values

Standards give guaranteed minimums (the yield strength of 355 MPa for S355 in EN 10025-2 is the minimum guaranteed for thickness up to 16 mm) and specified ranges of composition (Cr 18.00–20.00 % in JIS, for example). A manufacturer’s “typical” value is an average of measurements, not a guarantee.

Values for the same material name often differ slightly between sources because of the sample, test method and temperature, not because one of them is wrong. Where the calculators use different values, this page shows both with their conditions and sources rather than correcting either.

When you cite a value

Cite the source of the value (listed on the card and in the source list), not this page. It is safest to open the source and check the condition (temperature, state, direction, test method) before using a value.

Write the unit and condition together with the value. Converted values are shown with the significant figures of the original value. The CSV gives both the value in the displayed unit and the value in its original unit.

How this data was made

The values are extracted by script from the data sets used by the calculators on this site (periodic table, thermal expansion and stress, materials selection chart, composite designer, diffusion simulator, XRD workbench, binary phase diagrams, calculation drill and material designations). No calculator value is copied by hand, and every extracted value is checked against the calculator.

The only values not in the calculators are the properties of 304 and 316 stainless steel from Cleveland-Cliffs product data (US 304/304L and 316/316L bulletins). They are copied from the tables of those bulletins and checked against them again; values whose US-unit and SI figures disagree within the bulletin are left out (where only the stated temperature disagrees, the °F temperature is used). Values that the composite designer assumes (with no source) and values calculated by assuming isotropy are left out.

“Open in calculator” on a material card opens the calculator with that material’s values filled in, in the same state as picking the material in the calculator.

FAQ

A handbook gives a slightly different value. Which one is right?

Usually both: the sample, test method or temperature differs. Every value here comes with its source and condition, so check first whether the conditions match. If they match and the values still differ a lot, please check the source and let us know.

Why is the representative value of a range not the midpoint?

For properties spanning several times or more, the geometric mean, which is the midpoint on a logarithmic scale, describes the position in the range better. It is the same as the center of the ellipse in the materials selection chart. For example, the arithmetic mean of 0.01–1 is 0.505, while the geometric mean is 0.1.

Can I design a part with these values?

They are fine for narrowing down and comparing materials, but not for design. For design, use guaranteed values from standards or data for the actual grade from its manufacturer (minimums and values at temperature).

Should I look at yield strength or tensile strength?

Use the yield strength (0.2 % proof stress) for parts that must not deform plastically, and the tensile strength to compare strength to fracture. Ceramics and glasses do not yield, so look at the flexural or tensile strength. The table always states which strength it shows.

Why are some properties blank?

Only values confirmed in a source are included. Values that are not in the calculators’ data or not given in the sources are not filled in by estimation.

How many digits does the CSV give?

Values converted to the displayed unit are rounded to the significant figures of the original value. Each row also gives the value in its original unit and its source, so you can check the original.

Sources

Numbers match the source numbers in the table and on the cards. Parentheses name the calculator that uses the values.

P. Villars (ed.), “Crystal Structures and Cell Parameters of Allotropes of the Chemical Elements”, ASM Alloy Phase Diagram Database (ASM International, 2007), values at 25 °C (calculator: Periodic table for materials)
WebElements crystal structure pages (Zn: Jette 1935; Tc: Mooney 1948) (calculator: Periodic table for materials)
CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics densities (CRC row of Wikipedia “Densities of the elements (data page)”) (calculator: Periodic table for materials)
Wolfram ElementData densities (periodictable.com list) (calculator: Periodic table for materials)
Wikipedia “Densities of the elements (data page)”, adopted value (calculator: Periodic table for materials)
CRC Handbook melting points (CRC row of Wikipedia “Melting points of the elements (data page)”) (calculator: Periodic table for materials)
Wikipedia “Melting points of the elements (data page)”, WebElements / adopted row (calculator: Periodic table for materials)
WebElements Young’s moduli (WEL row of Wikipedia “Elastic properties of the elements (data page)”) (calculator: Periodic table for materials)
CRC Handbook Young’s moduli (CRC row of Wikipedia “Elastic properties of the elements (data page)”) (calculator: Periodic table for materials)
Wikipedia “Atomic radii of the elements (data page)”, metallic radius (12-coordination, from WebElements) (calculator: Periodic table for materials)
ASM Alloy Phase Diagram Database table of allotropes (transformation temperatures at 1 atm) (calculator: Periodic table for materials)
CIAAW/IUPAC abridged standard atomic weights (2021) (calculator: Binary phase diagram lab)
Wikipedia, "Thermal expansion coefficients of the elements (data page)" (values from the CRC Handbook, Lange and WebElements, near 25 °C) (calculator: Thermal Expansion & Stress Lab)
Wikipedia, "Elastic properties of the elements (data page)" (Poisson ratios from WebElements) (calculator: Thermal Expansion & Stress Lab)
Wikipedia, "Thermal conductivities of the elements (data page)" (near 300 K) (calculator: Thermal Expansion & Stress Lab)
M. F. Ashby, Material property data for engineering materials, 5th ed. (Ansys Granta, 2021) (same ranges as the material selection chart; representative value = geometric mean of the range) (calculator: Thermal Expansion & Stress Lab)
EN 1993-1-1 (E = 210 GPa, ν = 0.3, α = 12×10⁻⁶ K⁻¹) and EN 1993-1-2 (thermal strain and conductivity equations for structural steel, 20–1200 °C) (calculator: Thermal Expansion & Stress Lab)
Rolled Alloys, Invar 36 data sheet (mean CTE from 70 °F, 0.2 % proof stress) (calculator: Thermal Expansion & Stress Lab)
High Temp Metals, Invar 36 technical data (annealed E, density, thermal conductivity, Curie temperature) (calculator: Thermal Expansion & Stress Lab)
High Temp Metals, Kovar technical data (mean CTE from 25 °C, E, density, thermal conductivity, yield strength) (calculator: Thermal Expansion & Stress Lab)
Kyocera fine ceramics material properties (data sheets; flexural strength by three-point bending JIS R 1601, thermal shock by water quench JIS R 1648) (calculator: Thermal Expansion & Stress Lab)
ISO 16293-1:2008 (general physical properties of soda-lime silicate glass for building) (calculator: Thermal Expansion & Stress Lab)
SCHOTT BOROFLOAT 33 technical data (α 20–300 °C, E, ν, flexural strength, strain point) (calculator: Thermal Expansion & Stress Lab)
Corning HPFS 7980 fused silica data (E, ν, density, thermal conductivity, mean CTE, strain point, flexural strength of abraded samples) (calculator: Thermal Expansion & Stress Lab)
Wikipedia, "Soda–lime glass" (table: Tg of float glass 564 °C) (calculator: Thermal Expansion & Stress Lab)
Isola 370HR data sheet (FR-4 class laminate: CTE x/y, E, ν, thermal conductivity, flexural strength, Tg) (calculator: Thermal Expansion & Stress Lab)
M. A. Hopcroft, W. D. Nix, T. W. Kenny, J. Microelectromech. Syst. 19 (2010) 229 (E and ν of Si, biaxial modulus of (100) 180 GPa, C11 = 165.7, C12 = 63.9, C44 = 79.6 GPa) (calculator: Thermal Expansion & Stress Lab)
M. F. Ashby, "Material property data for engineering materials", 5th ed., Oct 2021, Ansys Granta EduPack teaching resource (Tables A2 density, A3 Young's modulus & yield strength, A4 tensile strength & fracture toughness, A6 thermal conductivity & expansion) (calculator: Material selection chart)
CoorsTek, “Advanced Alumina” material properties (94–99.9 % Al₂O₃) (calculator: Material selection chart)
Wikipedia “Soda–lime glass”, table of properties (citing Seward & Vascott eds., High temperature glass melt property database, ACerS 2005, and Janssen & Warmoeskerken, Transport phenomena data companion, 2006) (calculator: Material selection chart)
Corning HPFS 7980 fused silica product data (as reproduced by UQG Optics) (calculator: Material selection chart)
NIST Structural Ceramics Database, alumina (AD-999 3.96, sintered 99.6 % 3.98 g/cm³) (calculator: Material selection chart)
A. F. Liu, Mechanics and Mechanisms of Fracture, ASM International 2005, Appendix 7 (published by NIST); K_IC of 2124-T351 L-T 47.9 (calculator: Material selection chart)
Aircraft Materials, 17-4PH (AMS 5643/5604): 0.2 % proof stress in H900, 170 ksi (= 1170 MPa) (calculator: Material selection chart)
ASM Aerospace Specification Metals, Ti-6Al-4V (Grade 5) annealed: thermal conductivity 6.7 W/(m·K) (calculator: Material selection chart)
Special Metals, INCONEL alloy 718 technical bulletin: room-temperature thermal conductivity 77 Btu·in/(ft²·h·°F) (= 11.1 W/(m·K)) (calculator: Material selection chart)
Natural Stone Institute, R-Value for Natural Stone (granite 1.73–3.98, limestone 1.26–2.15, marble 2.07–2.94, sandstone 1.83–2.90, quartzite 5.38 W/(m·K)) (calculator: Material selection chart)
NETZSCH Polymers, CR: Chloroprene rubber (linear CTE 185–250 ×10⁻⁶/K, thermal conductivity 0.18–0.20 W/(m·K)) (calculator: Material selection chart)
Toray Composite Materials America, TORAYCA T300 Technical Data Sheet (No. CFA-001) (calculator: Composite designer)
Toray Composite Materials America, TORAYCA T700S Technical Data Sheet (No. CFA-005) (calculator: Composite designer)
Toray Composite Materials America, TORAYCA T800S Technical Data Sheet (calculator: Composite designer)
Toray Composite Materials America, TORAYCA M40J Technical Data Sheet (No. CFA-014) (calculator: Composite designer)
Toray Composite Materials America, TORAYCA M55J Technical Data Sheet (No. CFA-017) (calculator: Composite designer)
Teijin Tenax HTS40 (12K/24K roving), values as listed by the distributor compositeshop.de (calculator: Composite designer)
P. D. Soden, M. J. Hinton, A. S. Kaddour, Compos. Sci. Technol. 58 (1998) 1011 (WWFE), as tabulated in NPTEL course 101104010, Lecture 25 (IIT Kanpur), Tables 7.1–7.2 (calculator: Composite designer)
AGY, “S-Series High Performance Materials for Automotive Applications” (E-Glass / S-2 Glass property table) (calculator: Composite designer)
Owens Corning, “Higher Performance Composites” sell sheet, Pub. 10023976 (2021), Advantex E-CR glass (calculator: Composite designer)
DuPont, Kevlar Aramid Fiber Technical Guide, Tables II-1 and II-4 (Kevlar 49) (calculator: Composite designer)
Kevlar 49 transverse constants from the DuPont Kevlar 49 Data Manual (1986), as listed in Autodesk Helius PFA Material Manager, Appendix A (calculator: Composite designer)
Mafic, Basalt Direct Roving 17 µm technical data (impregnated strand, ASTM D2343) (calculator: Composite designer)
J. Zhu, H. Zhu, J. Njuguna, H. Abhyankar, Materials 6 (2013) 5171, Table 2 (after Sparnins 2009; Symington et al. 2009) (calculator: Composite designer)
Hexcel, HexPly 8552 Product Data Sheet (neat resin) (calculator: Composite designer)
M. F. Ashby, Material property data for engineering materials, 5th ed. (Ansys Granta, 2021) – centre of the range, as in this site’s material selection chart (calculator: Composite designer)
Ashland, DERAKANE MOMENTUM 411-350 Technical Datasheet (cured casting) (calculator: Composite designer)
Victrex, VICTREX PEEK 450G Typical Properties (calculator: Composite designer)
BASF, Ultramid B3S (PA6) datasheet (ISO 527, ISO 11359) (calculator: Composite designer)
LyondellBasell, Moplen HP500N datasheet (ISO 527) (calculator: Composite designer)
ASM Aerospace Specification Metals, Aluminum 6061-T6 data sheet (calculator: Composite designer)
T300/5208 (Tsai & Hahn), as given in Universidad Carlos III de Madrid, Mecánica de Materiales Compuestos, Ejercicios Tema 5 (calculator: Composite designer)
N. P. Vedvik, TMM4175 Lightweight Design, NTNU, “Material properties”, Table 1 (V_f = 0.55) (calculator: Composite designer)
EN 1993-1-1 §3.2.6 (E = 210 GPa, ν = 0.3) and EN 10025-2 S355 (f_y = 355 MPa, t ≤ 16 mm); ρ = 7.85 g/cm³ (calculator: Composite designer)
W. D. Callister, D. G. Rethwisch, Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction, 9th ed. (Wiley, 2014), Table 5.2 (calculator: Diffusion and surface-treatment simulator)
W. D. Callister, Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction, 7th ed. (Wiley, 2007), Table 5.2 (calculator: Diffusion and surface-treatment simulator)
D. R. Askeland, The Science and Engineering of Materials, Table 5-1 (C in FCC iron: D0 = 0.23 cm²/s, Q = 32,900 cal/mol) (calculator: Diffusion and surface-treatment simulator)
S. Fujikawa, K. Hirano, Y. Fukushima, Metall. Trans. A 9 (1978) 1811 (753–893 K) (calculator: Diffusion and surface-treatment simulator)
R. B. Fair (1981), intrinsic diffusivity, as tabulated in S. W. Jones, Diffusion in Silicon (IC Knowledge, 2000), Table 1.4 (calculator: Diffusion and surface-treatment simulator)
Callister & Rethwisch 9th ed., Section 5.6, example of boron diffusion into silicon (D0 = 2.4 × 10⁻³ m²/s, Qd = 3.87 eV/atom) (calculator: Diffusion and surface-treatment simulator)
Handbook of Mineralogy (data sheets: Halite, Sylvite, Griceite, Periclase, Fluorite, Sphalerite, Zincite) (calculator: XRD analysis workbench)
I. Vurgaftman, J. R. Meyer, L. R. Ram-Mohan, J. Appl. Phys. 89 (2001) 5815 (lattice constants at 300 K) (calculator: XRD analysis workbench)
S. Kisi, M. M. Elcombe, Acta Cryst. C45 (1989) 1867 (a, c and u of wurtzite ZnS; u of ZnO) (calculator: XRD analysis workbench)
Univ. of Washington MSE 170 Lecture 16 (Callister’s diagrams and examples: Pb–Sn 183 °C, 61.9 wt% Sn; Cu–Ag 779 °C, 71.9 wt% Ag) (calculator: Binary phase diagram lab)
Modern Casting (AFS), the Al–Si phase diagram (eutectic 577 °C, 12.6 wt% Si) (calculator: Binary phase diagram lab)
Princeton MAE 324 09mae_45 (Al–Cu: eutectic 548 °C, eutectic liquid 33.2 wt% Cu) (calculator: Binary phase diagram lab)
Wikipedia “Heats of fusion of the elements”, Lange’s Handbook column (calculator: Binary phase diagram lab)
IEC 60028 (international annealed copper standard: 1.7241 × 10⁻⁸ Ω·m at 20 °C, temperature coefficient 0.00393 K⁻¹) (calculator: Calc Drill)
Electrical-grade aluminum, 61 % IACS (conductivity relative to 1.7241 µΩ·cm: 2.8264 × 10⁻⁸ Ω·m, temperature coefficient 0.00403 K⁻¹) (calculator: Calc Drill)
Japan Stainless Steel Association, piping manual (basics): composition table (JIS ranges) (calculator: Material designations)
Nabeya Bi-tech, chemical composition of aluminum alloys (A6061 and others) (calculator: Material designations)
Cleveland-Cliffs, “304/304L Stainless Steel” Product Data Bulletin (2021): physical properties and the 70 °F (21 °C) row of Table 3 (annealed) (calculator: added in this data page)
Cleveland-Cliffs, “316/316L Stainless Steel” Product Data Bulletin (2021): physical properties and the typical room-temperature properties of Table 1 (calculator: added in this data page)